Ngữ âm tiếng Anh (B1 & B2)

ghlighted or more important words that receive prominence within the sentence. Thus pitch and prominence can be said to have a symbiotic relationship with each other in English, and the interrelationship of these phenomena determines the intonation contour of a given utterance. The next three sections summarize the most common intonation contours in English. 2. Most common intonation contours 2.1. Rising - falling intonation  One of the most common patterns is the rising-falling contour. In this pattern, the intonation typically begins at a neutral middle level (2) and then rises to a high level (3) on the main stressed element of the utterance. The intonation then falls to either the low level (1) - a terminal fall, signaling certainty and generally corresponding to the end of the utterance - or to the middle level (2) - a non-terminal fall, signaling a weaker degree of certainty and usually corresponding to an unfinished statement, an incomplete thought, or a mood of suspense. If the prominent syllable is the last syllable in the thought group, the fall is a glide:           (glide) If, on the other hand, the stressed syllable is part of a multisyllabic word with other unstressed syllables after it, then the fall occurs on the unstressed element immediately following the main stressed syllable and is called a step: Rising-falling intonation patterns of the 2-3-1 "certainly” type (i.e., the utterance begins at level 2, rises to level 3, and then falls to level 1) typically signal the following types of utterances: declarative statements, wh- questions (questions with the interrogative pronouns where, when, what, who, why, how much), and commands or directives Two further types of utterances can use rising-falling intonation contours. However, in these cases the pitch levels also vary from the 2- 3-1 pattern. The first of these utterances uses a 2- 3- 2 non-terminal fall with a slight rise at the end, indicating that the utterance is an unfinished statement in which the speaker has left something unsaid it implied: In some unfinished statements, the speaker uses the 2- 3- 2 pattern with a slight rise at the end to create suspense: The other utterance using a rising-falling intonation occurs after a 2-3-1 contour and employs a 3- 1 contour. This contour occurs in tag question eliciting agreement, in which the speaker is requesting confirmation from the interlocutor. Functioning almost kike a statement, the typically signal certainty: 2.2 Rising intonation  Another common intonation pattern in English is the rise. Rise in intonation usually begins at the syllable with discourse prominence and continues slightly until the and of the phrase: There are two different rise contours: one that moves from middle to high level (2-3 or 2-4), depending on the amount of emotion being expressed, and another that rises from low to midlevel (1-2). The middle - to - high rise (2-3 or 2-4) signals uncertainty. The following utterance types tend to follow this pattern: yes/no questions using question word order, open choice alternative questions, yes/no questions using statement word order, unfinished statements creating suspense, echo question, repetition questions, and tag questions signaling uncertainty. In the first of these, yes/ no questions, the speaker asks a question, phrased in question word order, to which the expected answer is yes or no. In the next pattern, open-choice alternative questions, the listener has a free choice of a alternatives being offered. It is unclear whether other options are available, but the listener is given the chance to reject all of the alternatives. The next category involves utterances that look like statements in terms of their syntax but function as questions. Such statements are unlike normal yes/no questions in that speaker already has some evidence to confirm the statement. Both 2-3 and 2-4 rise patterns are possible - the latter if surprise or disbelief is being expressed: Occasionally, as a conversational strategy, a speaker will repeat a question before answering it. In these types of questions, commonly known as echo questions, there is a 2-3 rise pattern. For example, in answer to Speaker A question “What are you doing this weekend?” Speaker B might begin with the following echo question: Repetition questions ask for repetition usually because the speaker could not hear what was said or the speakers could not believe what was said. These types of questions can follow statements, yes/no questions, or wh-questions. In the case of a 2 -3 pitch contour, the question means "Could you repeat what you said? I didn’t hear you.” Suppose that Speaker A asks, “What are you doing this weekend?” to which Speaker B replies, "I'm going skiing” If Speaker A has not understood, a repetition question is asked: With a more exaggerated pitch rise, on the other hand, the question means “I can’t believe what I just hear. Tell me a gain.” Assuming for example, that Speaker B’s answer to question “What are you doing this weekend?” is “I’m doing skydiving ,” Speaker A might signal disbelief through a rise to level 4: Unlike the category of tag questions eliciting agreement, tag questions signaling uncertainty are more like true yes/no questions. The speaker may have some prior assumption but allows for the possibility of either a ”yes” or “no” response: 2.3 Other paterns  As noted previously, there are two basic options for sentence - final intonation in English - rising-falling and rising patterns. However, internal to a given sentence, there may also be a series of rises or falls that occur as a result of the syntax. In the first combination, elements occur in a series, with each item in the series receiving rising intonation (usually 2-3) until the final item, which receives rising - falling intonation (2-3- 1). The identical pattern is found in closed-choice alternative questions. Again, each alternative receives rising intonation until the final one - signaling that no other options are available and the speaker is expected to select from the closed set of choices presented. This pattern of closed-choice alternative questions contrasts both in intonation contour and meaning with the open choice alternative questions described earlier. Compare:     (Closed choice: Which credit card are you going to pay with: Master Card or Visa) In appositive constructions, defined as a phrase or clause that follows and modifies a noun giving added information, the 1- 2 -1 contour signals that the clarifying appositive information is uttered as an aside. A related construction is the parenthetical expression. Similar to appositives, these expressions are often uttered as asides, signaled through the intonation contour used by the speaker. Parentheticals include utterances such as direct address (John, Dr. Martin), polite expressions (please, thank you), adverbials (unfortunately, one in a while), expressions of opinion (I’m afraid, you know), and epithets or expletives (that jerk, damn). These parenthetical elements, when they appear sentence initially, can be signaled either through a rising falling pattern: A second pattern used with middle-sentence and sentence-final parenthetical moves from low to middle level (1-2), with the rise in intonation coinciding with the main stressed syllable of the parenthetical: In compound or complex sentences, each clause has its own intonation pattern, which more or less corresponds to the rules given previously. In other words, each clause may terminate in rising intonation or rising-falling intonation, depending on its particular syntax. However, in the case of falling intonation patterns with non-final clauses, the fall usually terminates at level 2. As we mentioned previously, certain basic principles governing English prominence exist: however, the speaker’s intentions may override typical patterns in order to assign special prominence to a different element in the utterance. This is also true for intonation. In fact, as we have seen, intonation contours are directly connected to the prominent syllable. Therefore it is logical that if the prominent element shifts according to discourse context, then the intonation pattern will also change. ______________________________________________ 5  Assignment 3:   Click here to accomplish Assignment 3. Assignment 3:   Click here to accomplish Assignment 3. LESSON 10: INTONATION Choose the best answer. Click the letter that corresponds to the answer you have chosen. 1. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'mend it' in rapid speech? A. mend it B. me - ndit C. men - dit D. m-endit 2. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'look out' in rapid speech? A. loo - kout B. loo-k-out C. look-out D. A and B are correct 3. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'my orange' in rapid speech? A. my + j + orange B. my + w + orange C. my orange D. none is correct 4. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'Employ a new team' in rapid speech? A. Employ a new team B. Employ-j-a new team C. Employ-w-a new team D. Employ-r-a new team 5. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'A toy and a game' in rapid speech? A. A toy-and-a game B. A toy-j-and a game C. A toy-j-an-da game D. A toy an-da game 6. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'How interesting!' in rapid speech? A. How-j-interesting B. How interesting C. How-u-interesting D. How-w-interesting 7. Which of the following is the possible pronunciation of the words: 'A cow and a buffalo' in rapid speech? A. A cow-and-buffallo B. A cow-w-an-da buffallo C. A cow-w-and a buffallo D. A cow an-da buffallo 8. When a stop is followed by another stop or affricate, the first stop is A. not released or aspirated B. released C. aspirated D. not release 9. If the consonants (whether stop or not) are identical, the consonant is somewhat__________, the two consonants are not articulated separately A. lengthened B. shortened C. varied D. deleted 10. In which of the following examples, the sound [t] at the end of the first word is NOT RELEASED or ASPIRATED? A. Back yard B. Back chair C. Back door D. Both B and C are correct 11. The suffix 's' in the word 'dogs' is pronounced as [z] ([dogz]). This is an example of... A. progressive assimilation B. regressive assimilation C. coalescent assimilation D. deletion 12. Which of the following statement is CORRECT? A. In progressive assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound. B. In progressive assimilation the conditioning sound follows and affects the preceding sound. C. In regressive assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound. D. In coalescent assimilation the conditioning sound precedes and affects the following sound. 13. In rapid speech, the word “grandpa” is pronounced as .... A. [`grænpa] B. [`grændpa] C. [`gramdpa] D. [`græmpa] 14. Coalescent assimilation is also referred to as a type of .... A. reciprocal assimilation B. supporting assimilation C. contrasting assimilation D. complementary assimilation 15. Which of the following statements is CORRECT? A. Metathesis is a process that reorders a sequence of segments. B. Metathesis is a process that deletes a sequence of segments. C. Metathesis is a process that reverses a sequence of segments. D. Metathesis is a process that redoes a sequence of segments. 16. In a stress-timed language, stressed syllables are ..................................... A. equal in timing B. varied in timing C. sometimes more prominent than unstressed syllables D. sometimes less prominent than unstressed syllables 17. In order to keep the rhythm of English, some sounds in a sentence have to be ........... A. lengthened B. compressed C. changed D. replaced 18. A weak form is the pronunciation of a word or syllable in ................... A. a stressed manner B. an unstressed manner C. a distorted manner D. an open manner 19. In writing the difference between the strong form and the weak form of a word is ........... A. well defined B. not unclear C. apparent D. not apparent 20. In the question ‘What’s he looking at?’, the word 'at' has ........................... A. the weak form B. the strong from C. both strong and weak forms D. None is correct 21. In which of the following sentences does the word 'there' has the weak form? A. There it is. B. Put it there. C. There should be a suggestion. D. You shouldn't go there. 22. The word 'as' in the phrase ‘As much as possible’ A. has the weak form B. has the strong form C. has both strong and weak forms D. None is correct. 23. In English, stress helps create ................ A. the speed of the language B. the pronunciation of the language C. the pitch of the language D. the rhythm of the language 24. Knowing how to recognize the stressed syllable ........................ A. will help you with reading B. will help you with comprehension C. will make you better understood D. will improve your vocabulary 25. Which of the following statements is NOT CORRECT A. In every word in English, there is one main emphasized syllable. B. The vowel sound in a syllable sounds higher in pitch, longer, and louder. C. The vowel sound in a stressed syllable sounds higher in pitch, longer, and louder. D. You can be better understood if you place the stress where it should be when you're speaking. 26. In the word 'pronunciation', the primary stress is on the ...................... A. first syllable B. second syllable C. third syllable D. fourth syllable 27. Which of the following words has the second syllable stressed? A. technician B. graduation C. geometric D. understand 28. Which of the following statements is NOT CORRECT? A. Sentence stress is what gives English its rhythm or "beat". B. Word stress is accent on one syllable within a word. C. Sentence stress is accent on certain words within a sentence. D. Like word stress, sentence stress can help us to understand written English. 29. Which of the following is not a rule of sentence stress? A. Content words are stressed. B. The last word of a question is always stressed. C. Structure words are unstressed. D. The time between stressed words is always the same. 30. Which of the following categories does not belong to content words? A. Conjunctions B. Nouns C. Adjectives D. Adverbs 31. Which of the following statements is not correct? A. Intonation is the melodic pattern of an utterance. B. Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch level of the voice. C. Intonation is primarily a matter of variation in the pitch level of the sound. D. Intonation conveys differences of expressive meaning. 32. The relative highness or lowness of the voice is known as ........ A. stress B. rhythm C. melody D. pitch 33. Intonation involves ............... A. the rising and falling of the voice to various pitch levels during the articulation of an utterance. B. the rising and falling of the melody to various pitch levels during the articulation of an utterance. C. the variation of stress and rhythm. D. the variation of accent and pronunciation. 34. The movement of pitch within an intonation unit is referred to as ............... A. the intonation contour of that sentence. B. the intonation contour of that unit. C. the intonation of that sentence. D. the intonation of that unit. 35. If the intonation falls to the low level (1) [a terminal fall], it signals ............... A. uncertainty B. certainty C. an incomplete thought D. a question 36. If the intonation falls to the middle level (2) [a non-terminal fall], it signals ........ A. a weaker degree of certainty B. certainty C. a complete thought D. a finished statement 37. Rising-falling intonation patterns of the 2-3-1 "certainly” type do not signal which of the following? A. Declarative statements B. Wh- questions C. Commands or directives D. Incomplete thoughts 38. The intonation contour: The middle - to - high rise (2-3 or 2-4) pattern signals ................ A. directives B. complete thoughts C. certainty D. uncertainty 39. According to the following intonation pattern, what is an appropriate response to the question "We really ought to visit him, shouldn’t we?" A. No, we shouldn't. B. Yes, we should. C. I don't care. D. Yes, we ought. 40. Normally, the 2-4 rise intonation pattern is used to express............... A. surprise B. disbelief C. sadness D. A and B are correct. LESSON 11-12-13-14 : MORPHOLOGY I. INTRODUCTION There are two basic types of words in human language - simple and complex. Simple words are those that cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful units while complex words can be analyzed into constituent parts. The words houses, for example, is made up of the form house and the plural marker -s, neither of which can be divided into smaller morphemes. While many English words consist of only one morpheme, others can contain two, three, or more (see Table 1.1). Table 1.1 Words consisting of one or more morphemes One morpheme Two Three More than three and boy hunt hospital gentle boy-s hunt-er hospital-ize gentle-man hunt-er-s hospital-ize-ation gentle-man-ly hospital-ize-ation-s gentle-man-li-ness Morphology deals with the internal structure of complex words. The words of any language can be divided into broad types of categories, closed and open, of which the latter are most relevant to morphology. The closed categories are the function words: pronouns like you, and she; conjunctions like and, if and because; determiners like a andthe; and a few others. Newly coined and borrowed words cannot be added to these categories of words that are open are the major lexical categories: noun (N), verb (B), adjective (A), and adverb (Adv). It is to these categories that new words may be added. Because the major problem of morphology is how people make up and understand words that they have never encountered before, morphology is concerned largely with major lexical categories. Each word that is a member of a major lexical category is called a lexical item. A lexical item can best be thought of as an entry in a dictionary or lexicaon. The entry for each lexical item will include, in addition to its pronunciation (phonology); information about its meaning (sematics), to what lexical category it belongs, and in what syntactic environments it may occur (subcategorization). II. IDENTIFYING MORPHEMES AND ALLOMORPHS  A major problem for morphological analysis is how to identify the morphemes that make up words. Given our definition of the morpheme as the animal meaning-bearing unit of language, this will involve matching strings of sounds with co-occurring features of meaning. As an example of this procedure, consider the small set of data from Turkish in Table 2.2. Table 2.2 Some Turkish plurals  Turkish English /mumiar/ /toplar/ /adamiar/ /kitaplar/ ‘candies’ ‘gun’ ‘men’ ‘books’ In Table 2.2, there is only one feature of meaning, plurality, that is present in all four cases. There is also one string of sounds, /lar/, that is found in all four words. This suggests that /lar/ is the morpheme marking plurality in Turkish while /mum/ means ‘candle’, /top/ means ‘gun’, and so on. We would therefore predict that a single candle would be designated by the morpheme /mum/, without /lar/. This is correct. This is an unusually simple case, and many complications can arise. One such complication involves the fact that morphemes do not always have an invariant form. The morpheme used to express indefiniteness in English, for instance, has two forms - a anfan. an orange an accent an eel a building a car a girl The form a is used before words beginning with a consonant and the form an before words beginning with a vowel. The variant forms of a morpheme are called its allomorphs. As another example of allomorphic variation, consider the manner in which you pronounce the plural morpheme -s in the following words.               cats               dogs               judges Whereas the plural is pronounced as [s] in the first case, it is realized as [z] in the second, and as /∂z/ in the third. Here again, selection of the proper allomorph is dependent on phonetic facts. III. FREE & BOUND MORPHEMES The analysis of morphological structure is based on a number of fundamental contrasts. The first involves the distinction betwee a free morpheme, which can constitute a word by itself, and a bound morpheme, which must be attached to another element. The morpheme house, for example, is free since it can be used as a word on its own; plural -s on the other hand, is bound. The morphemes that are free or bound in English do not necessarily have the same status in other languages. For example, in Hare (an Athapaskan language spoken in Canada’s Northwest Territories), words that indicate body parts are always bound to a morpheme designating a possessor. Table 3.1 shows the morpheme fi (“head”), be (“belly”), and dzé (“heart”), each of which must be attached to a morpyheme naming the possessor. (A high tone is marked by the diacritic). Table 3.1 Some bound forms in Hare Hare sefi nebé ???edzé ‘my head’ ‘your belly’ ‘his heart’ (never *fi) (never *be) (never * dzé) Just as there are some free forms in English that are bound in other language, so there are some bound forms in English that are free in other languages. Past tense, for example, is expected by a bound morpheme (usually -ed) in English, but by the free morpheme le in Mandarin. (To simplify, tone is not marked in these examples). a) Ta    chi    le        fan.     He   eat    past    meal.    ‘He   ate    the     meal.’ b) Ta   chi     fan     le.     He   eat    meal   past.    ‘He  ate    the     meal.’ As you can see from these examples, le is apparently not attached to the verb since it is separated from it by the direct object in b). IV. WORD STRUCTURE Like sentences, complex words such as builder and gentlemanly have an internal structure. In this section, we will consider the categories and representation that are relevant to the analysis of word structure. What sort of structure do complex words have? Let’s look in some detail at the worddenationalization. This word contains five morphemes: de na tion al ize ation. Nation is a free morpheme, since it can stand alone as a word, while the rest are bound morphemes. But simply listing the parts of the word and whether they are free or bound does not tell us there is to know about the structure of this word. The parts have to be put together in a particular way, with a particular arrangement and order. For example, none of these possible orders of the same five morphemes constitutes an English word: * ationizalnationde * alizdeationnation * nationdeizational In fact, of the 120 possible arrangements of these five morphemes, only one,denationalization, could be an English word. The order is so strict because each of the bound morphemes is an affix, a morpheme which not only must be bound, but must be bound in a particular position. Furthermore, each affix attaches only to a particular lexical category (either N or V or A), called its base, and results in a word of another particular lexical category. The negative affix de-, for example, attaches to verbs and forms other verbs: ionize         - deionzie segregate   - desegregate Similarly, the affix -al forms adjectives from nouns, -ize forms verbs from adjectives or noun, and -ation forms nouns from verbs. Given these restrictions, the structure of the word denationalization can best be seen as the result of beginning with the simple form nation, which we may call the root of the word, and adding affixes successively, one at a time, as follows: nation national nationalize denationalize denationalization The structure of the entire word may be represented by means of either a set of labeled brackets or a tree diagram. The two types of notation are for the most part interchangeable. Both are shown in Figure 4.1. the diagram reveals how the word begins at its root, which cannot be broken down any further by morphological analysis, and is built up one affix at a time. the abbreviation Af stands for affix. Some other representations of structures of English words are given in Figure 4.2. such representations indicate the details of morphological structure. Where these details are irrelevant to the point being consi