Kinh tế học - Chapter 19: Economics of energy, the environment, and global climate change

Chapter 19Economics of Energy, the Environment, and Global Climate ChangeMcGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.Learning ObjectivesCharacterize the basics of energy consumption, supply and price.Discuss energy sustainability and conservation.List the types of damage done by pollution externalities.Describe different approaches to controlling pollution.Explain how a market-based approach could help mitigate global climate change.19-2Basics of Energy Supply and DemandSince 1850, oil usage per person in the U.S. has more than tripled.Since 1973, due to the energy shocks of 1973 and 1979, energy usage per person in the U.S. has remained relatively constant.The U.S. uses more energy per person than most other countries.19-3Energy ConsumptionThe United States uses more energy per person than most other countries.In 2008, the U.S. used 4.1 times the world average.Energy consumption is growing at a fast rate in the developing countries, especially in China and India.19-4U.S. Energy Consumption per Person19-5Global Energy Consumption per Person, 200819-6Energy SupplyThe most widely used energy sources are fossil fuels, which include coal, crude oil, and natural gas.The marginal cost of extraction is the amount of money that it takes to get one more ton of coal, one more barrel of oil, or one more cubic foot of natural gas out of the ground. This cost can vary greatly, depending on where the resource is located.19-7Energy SupplyCompanies will pump oil or mine coal where the marginal cost of extraction is the lowest.Once these resources are exhausted, companies will extract energy from more expensive locations.Eventually, as the marginal cost of extraction continues to rise, we will shift out of fossil fuels to alternatives.19-8Energy SupplyTwo other main sources of energy are renewable energy and nuclear power.Renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power have low variable costs, but high fixed costs.Nuclear power also has high fixed costs, but higher variable costs than renewable energy sources.19-9Where the World’s Energy Comes FromEnergy source19732008Coal24.4%27.0%Crude oil46.2%33.1%Gas16.0%21.1%Nuclear0.9%5.8%Hydro1.8%2.2%Combustible renewables10.6%10.0%Solar, geothermal, wind, and other0.1%0.7%19-10The Real Price of Gasoline19-11Energy SustainabilityWorld energy is likely to continue to grow at a fast pace, driven by growth in China, India, and other developing countries.The question is whether future supplies of energy will increase enough to meet this demand.If not, sharply higher prices of energy are likely to occur, which will slow economic growth.19-12World Oil ReservesThese is an ongoing debate among economists and geologists about the world’s crude oil reserves.The position that global production of oil may be nearing its highest point is called the peak oil theory.This implies a slowdown in oil production and is equivalent to an upward shift of the supply curve for oil. 19-13New Supply of Natural GasThere is a new supply of natural gas being developed from shale deposits.It is extracted by a new drilling technique know as “hydraulic fracturing”.An example is the Marcellus Shale found in Ohio, West Virginia, Pennsylvania and New York.There are potential environmental side effects.19-14Economics of ConservationEnergy conservation is a shift in economic activities to reduce the use of energy. There are three types of energy conservation.First, there is the normal market reaction to higher oil prices.If the supply curve for oil shifts to the left, the price of gasoline goes up, and the quantity demanded and supplied goes down. 19-15Energy Conservation in Response to a Supply Shift19-16Economics of ConservationThe second type of energy conservation is the result of government intervention.Examples include the fuel efficiency standards for cars (CAFÉ standards) and speed limits.These actions shift the demand curve to the left, causing price, the quantity demanded, and the quantity supplied to fall.19-17The Effect of a Speed Limit on the Gasoline Market Demand curve for gasolineQPDemand curve for gasoline with 55 mph speed limitPrice of gasolineQ1Quantity of gasoline supplied/boughtSupply curve for gasolineP1BA19-18Economics of ConservationThe third type of conservation is also the result of government intervention, but using a market-based approach.A market-based approach changes the price signals that consumers and producers face in order to move their behavior in the desired direction. One example of a market-based approach would be raising the tax on gasoline.19-19Energy Conservation with a Gas Tax19-20Alternatives to Fossil FuelsOver the long run, the solution to rising energy prices is likely to include technological breakthroughs.This will make alternative energy sources more attractive.These alternatives include: solar, nuclear, biofuels, hydro, wind, and fuel cells.Each of these has economic advantages and disadvantages.19-21Economics and the EnvironmentThe key concept in environmental economics is externalities. A negative externality is the negative side effect from an exchange that affects someone other than the buyer and seller. A plant burning coal to generate electricity produces externalities in the form of various air pollutants, such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide. 19-22Impact of Pollution ExternalitiesThere are several negative impacts from pollution. First, health impacts caused by externalities include loss of life and reduction of health. The second negative impact from pollution is material and crop damage. The third negative impact is the harm to environmental amenities.Finally, pollution can do ecological damage. 19-23Measuring the Damage Done by Pollution ExternalitiesTo measure the damage done by pollution, economists use the techniques of revealed preference and stated preference.Revealed preference means that you look at the choices that people make in their daily lives to change their risk of death by a little bit. Stated preference means that you ask individuals how much they would pay to reduce their risk of death by a little bit. 19-24Equilibrium in a Market with ExternalitiesThe competitive equilibrium occurs where price equals marginal cost.The problem is that the competitive equilibrium ignores the impact of the externality.Taking the externality into account shifts the marginal cost curve to the left, resulting in higher prices and a lower equilibrium quantity.19-25The Impact of Noise Externalities on Airline Passengers19-26Controlling PollutionThere are a number of ways to regulate or control pollution:First is the command-and-control approach.Government determines what products can’t be produced through various regulations.For example, the Environmental Protection Agency banned the pesticide DDT and issued strict regulation on the amount of carbon monoxide produced by autos.The command-and-control approach reduces pollution, but is inflexible and forces all emitters to meet the same standard. This raises costs.19-27Controlling PollutionThe second approach is the market-based approach, which uses prices to create incentives to reduce pollution.One example of using a market approach to reduce the amount of pollution is to tax the product or process causing the externality. The tax raises the price of the product. Another market-based approach for reducing pollution is through tradable pollution permits. A pollution permit gives a business the right to emit a specific amount of pollution. This is often called a cap-and-trade system.19-28Global Climate ChangeThe current scientific consensus is that the build-up of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide will lead to a significant warming of the Earth over the next 100 years.The economic effects of global warming could be very significant, especially for the agricultural sector of the economy.The potential solution to global climate change falls into two categories: adaptation and mitigation. 19-29Global Climate ChangeAdaptation is the alteration of consumer and business behavior to reduce the damage from global climate change. This approach uses price increases and the resulting incentives to minimize the harm from global warming.The impact on some groups in the society could be high.19-30Global Climate ChangeMitigation includes policies to significantly reduce emissions of greenhouse gases.This approach also prefers to use price signals to slow down the emission of greenhouse gases.One proposed means for reducing the incentive to burn fossil fuels is a carbon tax.The tax rate would vary for different fuels according to their carbon content. The other proposed alternative is to use the cap-and-trade system.19-31